Multiple Choice QuestionsThe World Trade Organisation (WTO) was created in the early 1990s as a component of
the Uruguay Round negotiation. However, it could have been negotiated as part of the
Tokyo Round of the 1970s, since negotiation was an attempt at a ‘constitutional reform’
of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Or it could have been put off to
the future, as the US government wanted. What factors led to the creation of the WTO in
the early 1990s? One factor was the pattern of multilateral bargaining that developed late
in the Uruguay Round. Like all complex international agreements, the WTO was a
product of a series of trade-offs between principal actors and groups. For the United
States, which did not want a new organization, the disputed settlement part of the WTO
package achieved its longstanding goal of a more effective and more legal dispute
settlement system. For the Europeans, who by the 1990s had come to view GATT
dispute settlement less in political terms add more as a regime of legal obligations, the
WTO package was acceptable as a means to discipline the resort to unilateral measures
by the United States. Countries like Canada and other middle and smaller trading
partners were attracted by the expansion of a rule-based system and by the symbolic
value of a trade organization, both of which inherently support the weak against the
strong. The developing countries were attracted due to the provisions banning unilateral
measures. Finally, and perhaps most important, many countries at the Uruguay Round
came to put a higher priority on the export gains than on the import losses that the
negotiation would produce, and they came to associate the WTO and a rule-based
system with those gains. This reasoning – replicated in many countries – was contained
in U. S. Ambassador Kantor’s defence of the WTO, and it announced to a recognition
that international trade and its benefits cannot be enjoyed unless trading nations accept
the discipline of a negotiated rule-based environment. A second factor in the creation of
the WTO was pressure from lawyers and the legal process. The dispute settlement
system of the WTO was seen as a victory of legalists but the matter went deeper than
that. The GATT, and the WTO, are contract organizations based on rules, and it is
inevitable that an organization creating a further rule will in turn be influenced by legal
process. Robert Hudee has written of the ‘momentum of legal development’, but what is
this precisely? Legal development can be defined as promotion of the technical legal
values of consistency, clarity (or certainty) and effectiveness; these are values that those
responsible for administering any legal system will seek to maximize. As it played out in
the WTO, consistency meant integrating under one roof the whole lot of separate
agreements signed under GATT auspices; clarity meant removing ambiguities about the
powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions or to undertake waivers; and
effectiveness meant eliminating exceptions arising out of grandfather-rights and
resolving defects in dispute settlement procedures and institutional provisions. Concern
for these values is inherent in any rule-based system of co-operation, since without these
value rules would be meaningless in the first place, therefore, create their own incentive
for fulfilment. The moment of legal development has occurred in other institutions
besides the GATT, most notably in the European Union (EU). Over the past two decades
the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has consistently rendered decisions that have
expanded incrementally the EU’s internal market, in which the doctrine of ‘mutual
recognition’ handed down in Cassis de Dijon case in 1979 was a key turning point. The
court is now widely recognized as a major player in European integration, even though
arguably such a strong role was not originally envisaged in the Treaty of Rome, which
initiated the current European Union. One means the Court used to expand integration
was the ‘teleological method of interpretation’, whereby the actions of member states
were evaluated against ‘the accomplishment of the most elementary goals set forth in the
Preamble to the (Rome) treaty. The teleological method represents an effort to keep
current policies consistent with slated goals, and it is analogous to the effort in GATT to
keep contracting party trade practices consistent with slated rules. In both cases legal
concerns and procedures are an independent force for further co-operation.
In the large part the WTO was an exercise in consolidation. In the context of a trade
negotiation that created a near-revolutionary expansion of international trade rules, the
formation of the WTO was a deeply conservative act needed to ensure that the benefits
of the new rules would not be lost. The WTO was all about institutional structure and
dispute settlement: these are the concerns of conservatives and not revolutionaries, that
is why lawyers and legalists took the lead on these issues. The WTO codified the GATT
institutional practice that had developed by custom over three decades, and it
incorporated a new dispute settlement system that was necessary to keep both old and
new rules from becoming a sham. Both the international structure and the dispute
settlement system were necessary to preserve and enhance the integrity of the
multilateral trade regime that had been built incrementally from the 1940s to the 1990s.
According to the passage, WTO promoted the technical legal values partly
through.
Integrating under one roof the agreements signed under GATT
Rules that create their own incentive for fulfilment
Ambiguities about the powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions
Ambiguities about the powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was created in the early 1990s as a component of
the Uruguay Round negotiation. However, it could have been negotiated as part of the
Tokyo Round of the 1970s, since negotiation was an attempt at a ‘constitutional reform’
of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Or it could have been put off to
the future, as the US government wanted. What factors led to the creation of the WTO in
the early 1990s? One factor was the pattern of multilateral bargaining that developed late
in the Uruguay Round. Like all complex international agreements, the WTO was a
product of a series of trade-offs between principal actors and groups. For the United
States, which did not want a new organization, the disputed settlement part of the WTO
package achieved its longstanding goal of a more effective and more legal dispute
settlement system. For the Europeans, who by the 1990s had come to view GATT
dispute settlement less in political terms add more as a regime of legal obligations, the
WTO package was acceptable as a means to discipline the resort to unilateral measures
by the United States. Countries like Canada and other middle and smaller trading
partners were attracted by the expansion of a rule-based system and by the symbolic
value of a trade organization, both of which inherently support the weak against the
strong. The developing countries were attracted due to the provisions banning unilateral
measures. Finally, and perhaps most important, many countries at the Uruguay Round
came to put a higher priority on the export gains than on the import losses that the
negotiation would produce, and they came to associate the WTO and a rule-based
system with those gains. This reasoning – replicated in many countries – was contained
in U. S. Ambassador Kantor’s defence of the WTO, and it announced to a recognition
that international trade and its benefits cannot be enjoyed unless trading nations accept
the discipline of a negotiated rule-based environment. A second factor in the creation of
the WTO was pressure from lawyers and the legal process. The dispute settlement
system of the WTO was seen as a victory of legalists but the matter went deeper than
that. The GATT, and the WTO, are contract organizations based on rules, and it is
inevitable that an organization creating a further rule will in turn be influenced by legal
process. Robert Hudee has written of the ‘momentum of legal development’, but what is
this precisely? Legal development can be defined as promotion of the technical legal
values of consistency, clarity (or certainty) and effectiveness; these are values that those
responsible for administering any legal system will seek to maximize. As it played out in
the WTO, consistency meant integrating under one roof the whole lot of separate
agreements signed under GATT auspices; clarity meant removing ambiguities about the
powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions or to undertake waivers; and
effectiveness meant eliminating exceptions arising out of grandfather-rights and
resolving defects in dispute settlement procedures and institutional provisions. Concern
for these values is inherent in any rule-based system of co-operation, since without these
value rules would be meaningless in the first place, therefore, create their own incentive
for fulfilment. The moment of legal development has occurred in other institutions
besides the GATT, most notably in the European Union (EU). Over the past two decades
the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has consistently rendered decisions that have
expanded incrementally the EU’s internal market, in which the doctrine of ‘mutual
recognition’ handed down in Cassis de Dijon case in 1979 was a key turning point. The
court is now widely recognized as a major player in European integration, even though
arguably such a strong role was not originally envisaged in the Treaty of Rome, which
initiated the current European Union. One means the Court used to expand integration
was the ‘teleological method of interpretation’, whereby the actions of member states
were evaluated against ‘the accomplishment of the most elementary goals set forth in the
Preamble to the (Rome) treaty. The teleological method represents an effort to keep
current policies consistent with slated goals, and it is analogous to the effort in GATT to
keep contracting party trade practices consistent with slated rules. In both cases legal
concerns and procedures are an independent force for further co-operation.
In the large part the WTO was an exercise in consolidation. In the context of a trade
negotiation that created a near-revolutionary expansion of international trade rules, the
formation of the WTO was a deeply conservative act needed to ensure that the benefits
of the new rules would not be lost. The WTO was all about institutional structure and
dispute settlement: these are the concerns of conservatives and not revolutionaries, that
is why lawyers and legalists took the lead on these issues. The WTO codified the GATT
institutional practice that had developed by custom over three decades, and it
incorporated a new dispute settlement system that was necessary to keep both old and
new rules from becoming a sham. Both the international structure and the dispute
settlement system were necessary to preserve and enhance the integrity of the
multilateral trade regime that had been built incrementally from the 1940s to the 1990s.
The most likely reason for the acceptance of the WTO package by nations was
that:
It has the means to prevent the US from taking unilateral measures
Its rule-based system leads to export gains
It settles disputes more legally and more effectively
It settles disputes more legally and more effectively
Two valence states of uranium, one with a deficit of four electrons and the other
one with a deficit of six occurs in nature and contributes to the diversity of uranium’s
behaviour.
the other one a deficit of six, occur in Nature and contribute
the other with a deficit of six, occurs in Nature and contributes
the other with a deficit of six, occur in Nature and contribute
the other with a deficit of six, occur in Nature and contribute
Initiative and referendum, is a procedure that allows voters to propose and pass
laws as well as to repeal them
allows voters to propose, pass and to repeal laws
will allow laws on be proposed, passed, as well as repealed by voters
allows voters to propose to pass, and repeal laws
allows voters to propose to pass, and repeal laws
Plausible though it sounds, the weakness of the hypothesis is that it does not
incorporate all relevant facts.
the weakness of the hypothesis which sounds plausible.
though the hypothesis sounds plausible, its weakness
even though it sounds plausible, the weakness of the hypothesis
even though it sounds plausible, the weakness of the hypothesis
B.
though the hypothesis sounds plausible, its weakness
Many of them chiselled from solid rock centuries ago the mountainous regions are
dotted with hundreds of monasteries:
The mountainous regions are dotted with hundreds of monasteries, many of which are chiselled from solid rock centuries ago.
The mountainous regions are dotted with hundreds of monasteries, many of them chiselled from solid rock centuries ago.
Hundreds of monasteries, many of them chiselled from solid rock centuries ago, are dotting the mountainous regions
Hundreds of monasteries, many of them chiselled from solid rock centuries ago, are dotting the mountainous regions
During her lecture, the speaker tried to clarify directional terms, for not everyone
in attendance was knowledgeable that winds are designed by the direction from which
they come.
With everyone in attendance not knowing
For everyone in attendance did not know.
With everyone attending not knowledgeable
With everyone attending not knowledgeable
MY LOVE OF NATURE, goes right back to my childhood, to the times when I
-stayed on, my grandparents' farm in Suffolk. My father was in the armed forces, so we
were always moving and didn't have a home base for any length of time, but I loved going
there. I think it was my grandmother who encouraged me more than anyone: she taught me
the names of wild flowers and got me interested in looking at the countryside, so it
seemed obvious to go on to do Zoology at University.
I didn't get my first camera until after I'd graduated, when I was due to go diving in
Norway and needed a method of recording the sea creatures I would find there. My father
didn't know anything about photography, but he bought me an Exacta, which was really quite a
good camera for the time, and I went off to take my first pictures of sea anemones and
starfish. I became keen very quickly, and learned how to develop and print; obviously I
didn't have much money in those days, so I did more black and white photography than
colour, but it was all still using the camera very much as a tool to record what I found both by
diving and on the shore. I had no ambition at all to be a photographer then, or even for some
years afterwards.
Unlike many of the wildlife photographers of the time, I trained as a scientist and therefore my
way of expressing myself is very different. I've tried from the beginning to produce pictures
which are -always biologically correct. There are people who will alter things deliberately: you
don't pick up sea creatures from the middle of the shore and take them down to attractive
pools at the bottom of the shore without knowing you're doing it. In so doing you're actually
falsifying the sort of seaweeds they live on and so on, which may seem unimportant, but it is
actually changing the natural surroundings to make them prettier. Unfortunately, many
of the people who select pictures are looking for attractive images and, at the end of the day,
whether it's truthful or not doesn't really matter to them.
It's important to think about the animal first, and there are many occasions when I've not
taken a picture because it would have been too disturbing. Nothing is so important that
you have to get that shot; of course, there are cases when it would be very sad if you didn't,
but it's not the end of the world. There can be a lot of ignorance in people's behaviour towards
wild animals and it's a problem that more and more people are going to wild places: while
some animals may get used to cars, they won't get used to people suddenly rushing up to
them. The sheer pressure of people, coupled with the fact that there are increasingly fewer
places where no-one else has photographed, means that over the years, life has become
much more difficult for the professional wildlife photographer.
Nevertheless, wildlife photographs play a very important part in educating people about
what is out there and what needs conserving. Although photography can be an
enjoyable pastime, as it is to many people, it is also something that plays a very important
part in educating young and old alike. Of the qualities it takes to make a good wildlife
photographer, patience is perhaps the most obvious - you just have to be prepared to sit it out.
I'm actually more patient now because I write more than ever before, and as long as I've got a
bit of paper and a pencil, I don't feel I'm wasting my time. And because I photograph
such a wide range of things, even if the main target doesn't appear I can probably find
something else to concentrate on instead.
The writer decided to go to university and study Zoology because
she wanted to improve her life in the countryside
she was persuaded to do so by her grandmother
she was keen on the natural world
she was keen on the natural world
MY LOVE OF NATURE, goes right back to my childhood, to the times when I
-stayed on, my grandparents' farm in Suffolk. My father was in the armed forces, so we
were always moving and didn't have a home base for any length of time, but I loved going
there. I think it was my grandmother who encouraged me more than anyone: she taught me
the names of wild flowers and got me interested in looking at the countryside, so it
seemed obvious to go on to do Zoology at University.
I didn't get my first camera until after I'd graduated, when I was due to go diving in
Norway and needed a method of recording the sea creatures I would find there. My father
didn't know anything about photography, but he bought me an Exacta, which was really quite a
good camera for the time, and I went off to take my first pictures of sea anemones and
starfish. I became keen very quickly, and learned how to develop and print; obviously I
didn't have much money in those days, so I did more black and white photography than
colour, but it was all still using the camera very much as a tool to record what I found both by
diving and on the shore. I had no ambition at all to be a photographer then, or even for some
years afterwards.
Unlike many of the wildlife photographers of the time, I trained as a scientist and therefore my
way of expressing myself is very different. I've tried from the beginning to produce pictures
which are -always biologically correct. There are people who will alter things deliberately: you
don't pick up sea creatures from the middle of the shore and take them down to attractive
pools at the bottom of the shore without knowing you're doing it. In so doing you're actually
falsifying the sort of seaweeds they live on and so on, which may seem unimportant, but it is
actually changing the natural surroundings to make them prettier. Unfortunately, many
of the people who select pictures are looking for attractive images and, at the end of the day,
whether it's truthful or not doesn't really matter to them.
It's important to think about the animal first, and there are many occasions when I've not
taken a picture because it would have been too disturbing. Nothing is so important that
you have to get that shot; of course, there are cases when it would be very sad if you didn't,
but it's not the end of the world. There can be a lot of ignorance in people's behaviour towards
wild animals and it's a problem that more and more people are going to wild places: while
some animals may get used to cars, they won't get used to people suddenly rushing up to
them. The sheer pressure of people, coupled with the fact that there are increasingly fewer
places where no-one else has photographed, means that over the years, life has become
much more difficult for the professional wildlife photographer.
Nevertheless, wildlife photographs play a very important part in educating people about
what is out there and what needs conserving. Although photography can be an
enjoyable pastime, as it is to many people, it is also something that plays a very important
part in educating young and old alike. Of the qualities it takes to make a good wildlife
photographer, patience is perhaps the most obvious - you just have to be prepared to sit it out.
I'm actually more patient now because I write more than ever before, and as long as I've got a
bit of paper and a pencil, I don't feel I'm wasting my time. And because I photograph
such a wide range of things, even if the main target doesn't appear I can probably find
something else to concentrate on instead.
Why did she get her first camera ?
she needed to be able to look back at what she had seen
she wanted to find out if she enjoyed photography
her father thought it was a good idea for her to have one
her father thought it was a good idea for her to have one
MY LOVE OF NATURE, goes right back to my childhood, to the times when I
-stayed on, my grandparents' farm in Suffolk. My father was in the armed forces, so we
were always moving and didn't have a home base for any length of time, but I loved going
there. I think it was my grandmother who encouraged me more than anyone: she taught me
the names of wild flowers and got me interested in looking at the countryside, so it
seemed obvious to go on to do Zoology at University.
I didn't get my first camera until after I'd graduated, when I was due to go diving in
Norway and needed a method of recording the sea creatures I would find there. My father
didn't know anything about photography, but he bought me an Exacta, which was really quite a
good camera for the time, and I went off to take my first pictures of sea anemones and
starfish. I became keen very quickly, and learned how to develop and print; obviously I
didn't have much money in those days, so I did more black and white photography than
colour, but it was all still using the camera very much as a tool to record what I found both by
diving and on the shore. I had no ambition at all to be a photographer then, or even for some
years afterwards.
Unlike many of the wildlife photographers of the time, I trained as a scientist and therefore my
way of expressing myself is very different. I've tried from the beginning to produce pictures
which are -always biologically correct. There are people who will alter things deliberately: you
don't pick up sea creatures from the middle of the shore and take them down to attractive
pools at the bottom of the shore without knowing you're doing it. In so doing you're actually
falsifying the sort of seaweeds they live on and so on, which may seem unimportant, but it is
actually changing the natural surroundings to make them prettier. Unfortunately, many
of the people who select pictures are looking for attractive images and, at the end of the day,
whether it's truthful or not doesn't really matter to them.
It's important to think about the animal first, and there are many occasions when I've not
taken a picture because it would have been too disturbing. Nothing is so important that
you have to get that shot; of course, there are cases when it would be very sad if you didn't,
but it's not the end of the world. There can be a lot of ignorance in people's behaviour towards
wild animals and it's a problem that more and more people are going to wild places: while
some animals may get used to cars, they won't get used to people suddenly rushing up to
them. The sheer pressure of people, coupled with the fact that there are increasingly fewer
places where no-one else has photographed, means that over the years, life has become
much more difficult for the professional wildlife photographer.
Nevertheless, wildlife photographs play a very important part in educating people about
what is out there and what needs conserving. Although photography can be an
enjoyable pastime, as it is to many people, it is also something that plays a very important
part in educating young and old alike. Of the qualities it takes to make a good wildlife
photographer, patience is perhaps the most obvious - you just have to be prepared to sit it out.
I'm actually more patient now because I write more than ever before, and as long as I've got a
bit of paper and a pencil, I don't feel I'm wasting my time. And because I photograph
such a wide range of things, even if the main target doesn't appear I can probably find
something else to concentrate on instead.
She did more black and white photography than colour because
she did not like colour photograph
she did not have a good camera
she wanted quality photograph
she wanted quality photograph
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