During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.

(i) For example,Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who founded two underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne..Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.

(ii) Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. The Romantics used folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances to popularize the true spirit of the nation. For eg; Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music in Poland. He turned folk dances; like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

(iii) Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. For eg: It was mainly used as an instrument when Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere in Poland.

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An early movement against French control and spread of Christianity was the Scholars’ Revolt in 1868. This was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power. There was an uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousands catholics were killed. Catholic missionaries had been active in converting people to Christianity since the early seventeenth century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century had converted some 300,000. This had angered the people of these provinces and led to the uprising. Though this uprising was crushed by the French, it had inspired the people of other regions to rise against the French colonialism.

One such movement was the Hoa Hao. It began in 1939 and gained popularity in Mekong Delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century. The founder of Hoa Hao was Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure, opposition to the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium had a wide appeal. The French tried to suppress the movement led by Huynh Phu So and declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze and put him in a mental asylum. These movements were against French control and spread of Christianity. They were anti-colonial. Thus these movements played an important role in arousing anti-colonial feelings in Vietnam.